21st Century Grammar Handbook by Barbara Ann Kipfer Page A

a
list:
“The poet talked, and the painter listened.” “The student wrote novels, poems, and plays.” Note that newspaper and some other writing avoid the second comma in lists of three (or the last comma in longer lists that end with “something and something”). Most
standard English
accepts as correct lists that include the “serial comma” (as in the example). The decision about whether to use the last comma in a series will depend on the usage in the group you are addressing plus your own preferences. Whatever choice you make or is dictated to you, it is most important to be consistent: All lists should either contain or not contain the last comma in a
series.
    The first example above of two independent clauses joined by a comma and
“and”
seems less ambiguous but isn’t. In today’s writing, particularly in fiction or any other slightly less formal, more conversational prose, the comma between independent clauses is often omitted, especially if they are short, simple clauses. Just what constitutes “short and simple” is debatable and subject to individual interpretation, which means that it is not uncommon to find much longer clauses joined by “and” or
“but”
and without acomma. This probably will earn bad grades in a school paper and might cause grumbling or raised eyebrows in a business letter. But such omissions are found more and more commonly in academic publications and quite formal business writing as well. If you are unsure of your audience or the perception of such usages, err on caution’s side and include the comma between independent clauses or in a series.
    Commas are also used to separate many other sentence elements, which are listed below more or less in order of frequency of occurrence.
I NTRODUCTORY C LAUSES
    Longer
prepositional phrases, infinitive phrases,
or participial
phrases
that begin sentences or dependent clauses in introductory positions in sentences are often set off by commas: “In the best of times and in the worst of times, people look for help.” “When it snows, the child skis.” Just what constitutes “longer” phrases is a matter of judgment, and some writers feel safer setting off all introductory phrases with a comma: “In January, it often snows.” Whatever judgments you make about which phrases to set off, it is most important to appear consistent in your decisions. See also
participle.
Q UOTED S PEECH
    Phrases that show who said something that is quoted are commonly set off with commas as well as
quotation marks:
“‘Yes,’ the teacher said.” “The child whispered, ‘Whattime is it?’ ” “‘Indeed,’ Smith opined, ‘there is reason for that.’ ” Such commas always appear within the quotes if the speaker follows the quotation marks (unlike British usage). Longer
block quotations
can be introduced by a comma even though no quotation marks appear around the quoted speech: “Kennedy delivered these remarks,
    Ask not what your country can do for you but what you can do for your country….
    He then went on to say other things.”
    The comma before the word “remarks” in the last example could also be a
colon
or could even be omitted altogether. See also
quotation.
D IRECT A DDRESS
    Names of people directly addressed in a
sentence
are set off with commas: “Chris, please apologize.” “It is clear, Sandy, that Chris will not apologize.”
P LACE N AMES
    Addresses and other place
names
separate the elements of a location with commas: “Casper, Wyoming” “Rosewell, NM” “Adelaide, Queensland, Australia.”
P ARENTHETICAL P HRASES
    While incidental or interjected words inserted into a
sentence
are best placed in
parentheses,
certain short
phrases
or stock phrases are commonly separated by commas. These phrases can be seen as kinds of
appositives:
“It is true, in my opinion, that prisoner is guilty.” “This comes, no doubt, as a surprise to you.” See also
interjection.
A PPOSITIVES
    Words that are equivalent and stand