The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger by Marc Levinson Page B

“History, Description and Economic Analysis,” pp. 43–44; Eric Rath,
Container Systems
(New York, 1973), p. 33.
    13. Holcomb, “History, Description and Economic Analysis,” pp. 54–67; Rath,
Container Systems
, p. 33.
    14. Details here are taken from the ensuing U.S. District Court decision,
New York, New Haven and Harford v. ICC
, 199 F. Supp 635.
    15. The relevant sentence in the Transportation Act of 1958 reads, “Rates of a carrier shall not be held up to a particular level to protect the traffic of any other mode of transportation, giving due consideration to the objectives of the national transportation policy declared in this Act.” “Coast Carriers Win Rate Ruling,”
NYT
, January 5, 1961; Robert W. Harbeson, “Recent Trends in the Regulation of Intermodal Rate Competition in Transportation,”
Land Economics
42, no. 3 (1966). The case was finally decided in the railroads’ favor by a unanimous Supreme Court,
ICC v. New York, New Haven & Hartford
, 372 U.S. 744, April 22, 1963. The dubious economics of determining a railroad’s “fully-distributed cost” of carrying a particular load are, fortunately, beyond the scope of this book.
    16. Holcomb, “History, Description and Economic Analysis,” p. 220; Bernard J. McCarney, “Oligopoly Theory and Intermodal Transport Price Competition: Some Empirical Findings,”
Land Economics
46, no. 4 (1970): 476.
    17. Five of the ten leading users of the New York Central’s Flexi-Van service were freight forwarders, but four leading manufacturers and the Montgomery Ward department-store chain also were on the list; see memo, R. L. Milbourne, New York Central, to managers, July 10, 1964, in Penn Central Archives, Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Delaware, Accession 1810/Box B-1872/Folder 15. Alexander Lyall Morton, “Intermodal Competition for the Intercity Transport of Manufactures,”
Land Economics
48, no. 4 (1972): 360.
    18. ICC, “Piggyback Traffic Characteristics,” pp. 6 and 58–60; Forgash, “Transport Revolution at the Last Frontier,” p. 63; Robert E. Bedingfield, “Personality: Champion of the Iron Horse,”
NYT
, February 22, 1959; “Trains and Trucks Take to the Ocean,”
Via
—
Port of New York, Special Issue: Transatlantic Transport Preview
(1965), p. 26; ICC,
Transport Statistics in the United States, Part 9: Private Car Lines
, Table 5, various years.
    19. ICC, “Piggyback Traffic Characteristics,” p. 28. Canada’s piggyback carloadings from 1959 through 1961 were about one-third those of the United States, despite a much smaller economy.
Containers
, no. 35 (June 1966): 33.
    20. Edward A. Morrow, “3-Way Piggyback Introduced Here,”
NYT
, August 10, 1960; Robert E. Bedingfield, “PiggyBack Vans Span Ocean Now,”
NYT
, March 12, 1961;
Containers
, no. 31 (June 1964): 25.
    21. Author’s interview with Bernard Czachowski, New York, January 24, 1992.
    22. PNYA,
Annual Reports
, various years; Hartman,
Collective Bargaining
, p. 270; McLean Industries,
Annual Report
, 1965.
    23. U.S. Department of Commerce, Marad, “United States Flag Containerships,” April 25, 1969.
    24. “Operators Uneasy on New Ships; Fear of Rapid Obsolescence Cited,”
NYT
, May 24, 1959. On 1964 discussions about entering the transatlantic trade, see Scott Morrison interview, COHP.
    25. Hall interview; George Home, “Intercoastal Trade,”
NYT
, January 29, 1961, “Line Will Renew U.S. Coastal Run,”
NYT
, February 23, 1961, and “U.S. Aid Is Denied for Coastal Runs,”
NYT
, May 13, 1961. Some of the details here are from Jerry Shields,
The Invisible Billionaire: Daniel Ludwig
(Boston, 1986), p. 224.
    26. Earl Hall interview, October 2, 1992; Sea-Land,
Annual Report
, 1965.
    27. Morrison interview, COHP.
    28. Ibid.; Werner Bamberger, “Rules on Cargo Boxes Revised to Spur Use and Ease Shipping,”
NYT
, March 17, 1966; Edward Cowan, “Container Service on Atlantic Begins,”
NYT
, April 24, 1966.
    29. Cowan, “Container Service”; Edward A.